Since I first wrote about poop eating in dogs several year ago, I have received many emails from people who have dogs that eat their own poop, or the poop of other animals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Let\u2019s take poop eating seriously<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
People want to know \u201cwhy is my dog eating his own poop\u201d and \u201cwill my dog get sick from eating his poop\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
But they also need to be supported through the horrible feelings that owning a poop eating dog can cause<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Owners of a poop eating dog are often revolted by their dog\u2019s behavior and report that their feelings towards their dog have changed since the problem started.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
These feelings need to be addressed, not ignored or dismissed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
You\u2019ll want to find a solution to the problem too!<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Whether your dog is snacking on his own poop, or raiding the cat litter box, you will want to know how to stop your dog eating poop as quickly as possible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
I\u2019ve revisited this topic today, because it is an important one, and because I wanted to bring you the latest information on why do dogs eat poop, and on how to stop a dog eating poop.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
<\/a>We\u2019ll be looking at the causes and solutions to poop eating and at how to make sure that this problem doesn\u2019t cause a breakdown in your friendship with your dog.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Poop eating is often swept under the carpet. But eating feces can be a serious problem for some dogs that do it – I\u2019ll explain why in a moment.<\/p>\n\n\n What is more, owning a dog that eats poop, especially a dog that eats his own poop, is often a hugely distressing problem for many dog owners.<\/p>\n\n\n\n And, it is a frequently reported problem in Labradors and other sporting dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Before we answer your questions, including \u201cwhy do dogs eat their poop\u201d and before we look at the various techniques you can use to stop a dog eating poop, let\u2019s find out just how rare or common this problem actually is.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Not only can it really help to know that you are not alone, and that many other dog owners have this problem too, it also helps us to understand our dogs a little better<\/p>\n\n\n\n According to the late Sophia Yin<\/a>, who reports on a study published in 2012, 16% of dogs are serious poo eaters. The Hart study showed that there were some breed differences.<\/p>\n\n\n\n There weren\u2019t enough dogs in the study for a definite list, but none of the poodles in the study ate their own poop for example. And more than a third of Border Collies did.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Judging from my inbox, coprophagia is common in Labradors too.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A study published in Colorado in 2010 showed that sporting dogs generally were more likely to be coprophagic.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Body weight is a factor in this behavior, but only in the sense of being related to size.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dogs that were heavier because they were obese, are no more likely to be affected.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Age is often considered to be a factor in poop eating, but the 2010 Colarado study did not support the theory that poop eating is more common in puppies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The current evidence points to neutering as being a major factor in the development of coprophagia.<\/p>\n\n\n Dogs that had been spayed or castrated were more likely to be reported as eating poop than dogs left in possession of their sex hormones.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In the Hart study the biggest culprits were spayed females. In the 2010 study carried out at the Colarado University neutering drastically increased the incidence of coprophagy in male dogs but had no effect on females.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Both studies agree however that neutering is a major cause of coprophagia, and seems to be more significant than any environmental factor<\/p>\n\n\n\n Interestingly, the true figure for the percentage of dogs that eat poop may be even higher than these studies suggest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Data from the studies was based on owner reports and the results of another study published in 2014 that identified dogs which are coprophagic and compared that data with owner reports, suggests that under-reporting by owners is a factor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n So it isn\u2019t just your dog eating poop. There are lots of them. But why do they do it?<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>It may depend partly on the type of poop being consumed<\/p>\n\n\n\n There are plenty of facts and theories around why dogs eat poop.<\/p>\n\n\n\n And plenty of guesswork too.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>Let\u2019s look at what we know first and then build on that<\/p>\n\n\n\n All mother dogs have an instinctive urge to eat their puppies\u2019 poop. After giving birth and for the next three weeks female dogs lick each puppy\u2019s bottom until he poops and or pees, and then swallow the results.<\/p>\n\n\n The licking helps to stimulate the puppy\u2019s natural digestive process, and consuming the results helps to keep the nest area clean<\/p>\n\n\n\n A clean nest in wild dogs is important both from a hygiene point of view and to avoid attracting predators<\/p>\n\n\n\n So from this, we can see that nature has provided female dogs with a poop eating instinct which is always triggered by the process of giving birth and suckling puppies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n And it\u2019s not a great stretch to see that this maternal instinct could easily last longer than it should or arise inappropriately when it isn\u2019t needed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n We can also see that keeping a nest area clean may well be a trigger that could apply to male dogs too.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>And it could explain why some male dogs eat poop that they find in their own back yard.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Like babies, puppies explore the world with their mouths. Everything and anything goes into it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If what goes into the mouth tastes like food, then puppies may swallow it. In theory, some poop eating puppies will grow out of it, whereas for others it becomes a habit.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Though as we have seen, there is some disagreement as to whether this is even a puppy issue, and whether poop eating is actually more common in puppies than in adult dogs<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cBut, but..!\u201d you cry \u201cwait a moment, what is this \u2019tastes like food\u2019 you speak of?\u201d poop doesn\u2019t taste like food – surely?<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>Well it would seem that some dogs would disagree with you. And that might be partly to do with the way we feed our dogs these days.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In times gone by, dogs were fed a largely natural diet of mainly meat, bones and a few scraps, which dogs as carnivorous scavengers could digest almost in its entirety.<\/p>\n\n\n\n What came out the other end was fairly boring.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Nowadays most dogs are largely fed on a pelleted cereal-based food known as kibble.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This kibble contains all the nutrients a dog needs, but it also contains a number of additives to make the food taste palatable.<\/p>\n\n\n\n After all, no food manufacturer wants your dog to turn his nose up at their product. So tasty is the key. And very tasty they are too.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In addition to strong flavourings, kibble contains quite a lot of \u2018fillers\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Substances which bulk up the nutrients and give the food structure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Much of this \u2018filler\u2019 is not needed by the dog, and passes out in its faeces. This is why kibble fed dogs produce larger quantities of faeces than raw fed dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n But remember those flavourings we just talked about? Well the faeces of the kibble fed dog are not only bulky, they are also highly flavoured.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Now we can see why, as the popularity of kibble feeding grows, it is possible that more dogs may be turning to poo eating as a means of grabbing that extra snack during the day. Poo is getting tastier. That is my theory anyway!<\/p>\n\n\n\n Some studies into why dogs eat poop, have shown that dogs with deficient diets or that are poorly nourished are more likely to eat poop. A study on Beagles in 1981 showed that feeding a deliberately deficient diet triggered coprophagia ( among other problems) for example.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If an undernourished coprophagic dog is switched to a nutrient rich nourishing diet, in theory that change may stop the poop eating behavior<\/p>\n\n\n\n But most modern dogs that eat poo are not nutritionally deficient and are fed a balanced diet with all the nutrients they need.<\/p>\n\n\n\n So switching brands for example, is unlikely to stop your dog eating poop.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In fact I have not found any strong evidence for dietary changes reducing coprophagia in well fed dogs, though there is something you might want to consider (see below) and I have some anecdotal evidence to report<\/p>\n\n\n\n Sophia Yin, when discussing the Ben Hart study pointed out that the study, based on questioning dog owners, noted that diet did not<\/i> play a part. However, the vast majority of dogs are fed on kibble, and there is no indication as to what diets were compared or how. The comparison could have been between different types of kibble, or between kibble and household scraps.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The 2010 study also showed no link between diet and poop eating, but 89% of the dogs in the study were kibble fed<\/p>\n\n\n\n An interesting paper called Coprophagia – food for thought\u201d published in a Canadian Veterinary journal in 1988 states that diets high in carbohydrate tended to \u201cenhance the drive to eat stool\u201d Unfortunately they don\u2019t state how they came to this conclusion<\/p>\n\n\n\n My personal experience is that changing my dogs from a diet of kibble (carbohydrate based pellets of commercial dog food) to a natural raw diet of meaty bones, has been accompanied by the disappearance of most poop eating in my adult dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>With some exceptions – as you will see. It seems that the jury is still out on whether raw feeding is a reliable way to stop dogs eating poop.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The second most common question I am asked about poop eating, is \u201cwhy does my dog eat cat poop\u201d followed closely by \u201chow to stop<\/em> my dog eating cat poop\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n If you think your dog is a bit of a freak for eating the contents of your cat\u2019s litter tray, it may be of some comfort to know that Blackwell\u2019s veterinary handbook classifies eating cat poop as completely normal in dogs of all ages.<\/p>\n\n\n\n That\u2019s right – it\u2019s official – your dog is not disturbed or depraved. He is normal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Virtually all dogs will eat cat poop if given the opportunity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n I have had chance to rediscover this for myself first hand recently, as I am currently raising a young kitten. Two of my labs, one of which has never eaten poop in her life, plus the spaniel I mention below, have all attempted dawn raids on the litter tray.<\/p>\n\n\n\n I have now secured the litter tray behind a baby gate which the cat can slide through and the dogs cannot.<\/p>\n\n\n And this is likely to be the best solution to the problem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If your dog is a pretty good jumper, you\u2019ll need a taller gate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n My thirteen year old spaniel can clear a standard baby gate with consummate ease, so I\u2019ve bought one with a cat flat.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>My gate was meant to go across the bathroom door, but the bathroom doorway is extra narrow, so we have fitted it across the hallway instead.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Blackwells comes to the rescue again with the answer to \u201cwhy do dogs eat rabbit poop\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n It\u2019s to do with undigested vegetable matter which is very attractive to dogs, and may even be an important source of nutrients in wild dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The same applies to ungulate feces – An ungulate is an animal with a hoof.<\/p>\n\n\n\n It is completely natural for a dog to enjoy eating horse poop, sheep poop, deer poop etc too. And almost all dogs will enjoy the feces of these animals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n It isn\u2019t just your dog.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>However, you may have a friend whose dog never eats poop, of any kind. So why is your dog different?<\/p>\n\n\n\n Eating poop often starts by accident – perhaps beginning as a puppyish habit, – and from this opportunistic behavior, poop eating sometimes develops into a habit.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If your friend\u2019s dog is male and yours is female, you are more likely to have a problem. For the reasons we have looked at above, coprophagia is more common in female dogs, but some male dogs do still eat poop.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Also for the reasons above, dogs are more likely to eat poop from animals that have a lot of digested vegetable matter in their feces, again, experts consider this normal<\/p>\n\n\n\n But some<\/em> dogs do eat carnivore poop, such as the poop from wild foxes or the poop of other dogs, or even their own. And this tends to be the behavior that most upsets us humans<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>Your dog is also more likely (much more likely) to eat poop, of any kind, if he or she is neutered, but no-one seems to know why that is.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Poop eating can start in puppyhood and may become a habit if it persist in adult dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dogs that eat their own poop may be attracted to the flavor (switching to a raw diet may help in this case)<\/p>\n\n\n The same applies to dogs that eat other dogs\u2019 poop, though a change of diet is not going to help with that one.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dogs that eat poop in their yard may also be trying to \u2018keep their den clean\u2019 and some dogs may eat poop due to boredom or an inappropriate diet.<\/p>\n\n\n\n There is also evidence that poop eating is more likely in dogs that already have behavioral problems such as anxiety or pica (eating plants, stones, and other inedible items)<\/p>\n\n\n\n However, we also know that well balanced, well fed, physically and emotionally healthy dogs can also be poop eaters. In fact most poop eating dogs probably fall into this category.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The simple truth is, that poop eating, while thoroughly objectionable to us, is so common as to be normal in the domestic dog. And we will probably never find out exactly<\/em> why dogs eat poop on a case by case basis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>In a moment we\u2019ll come to what you can do about it, but let\u2019s first find out what poop eating does to your dog.<\/p>\n\n\n\n There is definitely a risk that your dog could get parasites from eating the poop of other dogs. However, worming your dog regularly should prevent this causing him any serious health problems<\/p>\n\n\n\n There is also a risk that your dog could transmit or spread parasites that don\u2019t actually affect dogs. The potential for parasites sometimes found in cat poop fall into this category.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>But in broad terms, coprophagia doesn\u2019t normally cause illness in dogs. Most dogs have a digestion that is simply unaffected by common pathogens that could make you or I very ill.<\/p>\n\n\n\n So, if eating poop doesn\u2019t usually make dogs sick, how is it harmful?<\/p>\n\n\n\n The answer lies in a breakdown of the bond between the dog and his family.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This happens because humans are often shocked and disgusted by the behavior, and if they fail to address it swiftly, may abandon their dog<\/p>\n\n\n\n Most dogs come to no harm directly, from poop eating. But, indirectly, it can lead to dogs being re-homed or abandoned.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Many owners find poop eating upsetting and embarrassing. I hear quite a lot of dog owners issue ultimatums on this one.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cThis has to stop or he\u2019ll have to go\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cI can\u2019t put up with this, we have children to consider\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n The implication being that the dog will no longer be welcome in their home, if this horrible habit cannot be cured.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u00a0It is an issue that can lead to disaster for the dog.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Very often the reasons given for abandoning the dog are to do with hygiene. The family say that they are worried that the dog will infect a family member with pathogens from the poop he has eaten,<\/p>\n\n\n\n But I suspect the underlying cause is more fundamental than that. After all, most people are happy to share an ice-cream with a dog that licked his bottom a few minutes earlier.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The truth is, that whether we like it or not, persistent poop eating may seriously reduce the love that a person feels for their dog.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>This is an issue that is not often raised. But I think it is a significant one.<\/p>\n\n\n\n I think it is important that we don\u2019t underplay the distress that poop eating causes in some families.<\/p>\n\n\n\n For those of us that have been associating with dogs for many years, some of their finer habits are pretty familiar, but for many people with a first dog, poop eating behavior is a terrible shock and a very real concern.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The important thing to tell you is that most of us more seasoned dog owners once felt the same way. We shouldn’t feel embarrassed to say “my dog eats poop” but most of us are, or at least were at one time!<\/p>\n\n\n\n You might feel, right now, that you will never truly love your dog again, but the chances are, you are wrong.<\/p>\n\n\n\n I know that I felt terribly disappointed when I caught my first poop eating dog \u2018in the act\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n It was over thirteen years ago, soon after I had made the change from keeping mostly male dogs, to keeping mostly female dogs. And I was appalled and disgusted. I was even tempted to re-home her.<\/p>\n\n\n\n But I can tell you that she is still with me today, she is thirteen years old, rarely eats poop these days (never say never), and is one of my very dearest friends. <\/a>So these things can be worked through.<\/p>\n\n\n\n There are lots of things you can try to prevent a dog eating his own poop at home. The first step is to remove the source of poo wherever possible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This means being scrupulous about picking up after your dog, whenever he has emptied himself. Not always easy when you have a large yard or garden I know, but well worth the effort.<\/p>\n\n\n\n You may find it helpful, for a while at least, to go with your dog when you let him out for bathroom purposes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>That way, you can clear up immediately, and dispose of his feces securely, before he is tempted to settle down for a snack.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If your dog eats his own poop there are a number of theories about substances you can add to your dog\u2019s meals, to counteract the nice flavours and make his poo taste unattractive.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Pineapple is a popular one, pepper powder another.<\/p>\n\n\n\n However, sadly, in most cases, these kinds of remedies do not work. And when they do, some find that they only work for a short while.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>A few seem to have had some success, so you may think it worth a try.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Another tactic often recommended is to sprinkle your dog\u2019s poop with a substance that tastes horrid or that will create a burning sensation when he swallows it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Chilli powder for example<\/p>\n\n\n\n But be aware that the studies carried out so far suggest that these two methods – adding substances to the dog\u2019s diet or his poop, have a less than 2% success rate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Which I think you\u2019ll agree is a bit dismal<\/p>\n\n\n\n Some people find raw feeding eliminates poop eating. But these reports (including mine) are anecdotal. They are not reliable evidence that such a switch will work for you<\/p>\n\n\n\n And moving over to a raw diet is a major change that needs to be considered from a range of different aspects, not just from the point of view of poop eating<\/p>\n\n\n\n You could also consider changing your dog to an alternative brand of dog kibble, which uses a far higher ratio of protein. <\/a>(paid link)<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n If I can\u2019t feed my dogs raw for any reason, I use Orijen food. But when I do this, I have to be very careful to pick up poops quickly, or my spaniel will revert to her old ways.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Not everyone has the time or resources to drastically change the method of feeding their dog.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>So what other options are available?<\/p>\n\n\n\n The studies we have looked at showed that punishment – even harsh punishment didn\u2019t work at all and caused further problems in some dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In “Coprophagia – food for thought” the authors relate the story of Freddie, a neutered male poodle whose owners tried many different approached before eventually resorting to punishment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/a>This final step failed to cure Freddie and caused him to develop submissive urination – which only added to their problems<\/p>\n\n\n\n Of course, the methods above only work to prevent your dog eating his own poo.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If he has developed a taste for other dogs\u2019 poop you have a much more challenging problem on your hands because you cannot control what goes into or comes out of, other people’s dogs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The issue now becomes one of training your dog to \u2018leave\u2019 or to \u2018recall\u2019 away from the object of his desires, on command.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A reward-based programme of recall training in which you deliberately seek out dog poop in public places, and recall your dog away from it, to receive a tasty treat from you, will help<\/i> you to prevent your dog eating other dogs\u2019 poo in your vicinity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n I use the magic word system – which I find very effective<\/p>\n\n\n\n I associate a powerful reward with a special word that I reserve just for the purpose of distracting the dog from poop.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Several times a day, for several days, I will say this \u2018magic word\u2019 whilst the dog is in the vicinity, and throw a fabulous reward on the ground for the dog<\/p>\n\n\n\n And when I say fabulous, I\u2019m not talking about a bit of biscuit or some doggy treats that you bought from the pet shop<\/p>\n\n\n\n I\u2019m talking \u2019seriously tasty treats\u2019 here. Roast chicken is ideal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n At some point thereafter, when I see the dog approach a poo with a gleam in her eye, I will use my magic word and chuck the fabulous treat on the ground.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Sometimes, to begin with, the dog will scoff the poop, then come for the reward. You just have to accept this with a good grace.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Sometimes (often a bit further on in the process) she will bring the poo with her (eek!!).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Accept this too. It\u2019s tough, but you can do it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n If your reward is good enough, your dog will soon abandon all thoughts of poo eating when she hears that word. She\u2019ll start to drop the poop as she approaches you for her treat, and eventually won\u2019t even bother to pick it up<\/p>\n\n\n\n Provided your treat is truly fabulous!<\/p>\n\n\n\n This really works if you are persistent, and if your Magic Word is kept strong with great rewards and mostly no requirement from the dog in order to get it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n You can find out more about Magic Word training in this article: Your Labrador’s Magic Word<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\nCoprophagia in dogs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
![\"It](\"https:\/\/www.thelabradorsite.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/dog-eating-poop.jpg\")
<\/figure><\/div>\n\n\nWhich dogs eat poop?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
A previous study published in 2008<\/a> on dogs eating poop showed that nearly half of all dogs had eaten feces at some point and 28% were confirmed poop eaters<\/p>\n\n\n\nCoprophagia is linked with size<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Coprophagia is linked with neutering<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
![\"In](\"https:\/\/www.thelabradorsite.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/coprophagia-female.jpg\")
Coprophagia may be more common than we think<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Why do dogs eat their poop – different causes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Why female dogs eat poop<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
![\"why](\"https:\/\/www.thelabradorsite.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/mother-dog-and-puppy.jpg\")
<\/figure><\/div>\n\n\nWhy do puppies eat poop?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Coprophagia and diet<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Do flavour and fillers in dog food make poo eating more likely?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Can changing diet influence coprophagia<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Why do dogs eat cat poop<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
![\"how](\"https:\/\/www.thelabradorsite.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/stop-dog-eating-cat-poop.jpg\")
<\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.thelabradorsite.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/pet-gate-240x300.jpg\")
<\/a>(paid link)<\/span><\/span><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\nWhy is my dog eating rabbit poop<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Why does my dog eat poop (when my friend\u2019s dog never does)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Why do dogs eat their poop – some conclusions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
![\"Why](\"https:\/\/www.thelabradorsite.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/dogs-eat-their-own.jpg\")
<\/figure><\/div>\n\n\nCan dogs get sick from eating poop?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
How does poop eating harm dogs?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
This is no minor problem<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The distress caused by poop eating in dogs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
How to stop a dog from eating poop?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Flavoring your dog\u2019s food<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Adding aversive flavors to poop<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Making fundamental changes to your dog\u2019s diet to reduce poo eating<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Can punishment stop dogs eating poop?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Can Training Reduce Poop Eating in Dogs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Can A Magic Word Help with Poop Eating?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
General training to reduce poo eating in dogs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n